Islamic Art Adopted an Policy Which Forbids Any Depictions of People or Animals

Avoidance of images of sentient beings in some forms of Islamic fine art

Aniconism is the avoidance of images of sentient beings in some forms of Islamic art. Islamic aniconism stems in part from the prohibition of idolatry and in part from the conventionalities that the creation of living forms is God'south prerogative. Although the Quran does not explicitly prohibit visual representation of whatsoever living being, it uses the word musawwir (maker of forms, artist) as an epithet of God. The corpus of hadith (sayings attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad) contains more than explicit prohibitions of images of living beings, challenging painters to "breathe life" into their images and threatening them with punishment on the Day of Judgment.^{[i] [2]} Muslims have interpreted these prohibitions in unlike means in different times and places. Religious Islamic art has been typically characterized past the absenteeism of figures and extensive use of calligraphic, geometric and abstract floral patterns.

However, representations of Muhammad (in some cases, with his face up concealed) and other religious figures are plant in some manuscripts from lands to the due east of Anatolia, such as Persia and India. These pictures were meant to illustrate the story and not to infringe on the Islamic prohibition of idolatry, simply many Muslims regard such images every bit forbidden.^[1] In secular art of the Muslim world, representations of human being and beast forms historically flourished in nearly all Islamic cultures, although, partly because of opposing religious sentiments, figures in paintings were frequently stylized, giving rise to a diverseness of decorative figural designs. There were episodes of iconoclastic destruction of figurative art, such as the decree by the Umayyad caliph Yazid II in 721 CE ordering the destruction of all representational images in his realm.^{[2] [3]} A number of historians take seen an Islamic influence on the Byzantine iconoclastic motility of the 8th century, though others regard this is as a fable that arose in after times in the Byzantine empire.^[4]

Theological views [edit]

The Quran, the Islamic holy book, does non explicitly prohibit the depiction of human figures; it just condemns idolatry.^{[5] [6]} Interdictions of figurative representation are nowadays in the hadith, among a dozen of the hadith recorded during the latter part of the period when they were being written down. Because these hadith are tied to particular events in the life of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, they need to be interpreted in order to exist applied in whatsoever full general way.

Sunni exegetes of tafsir, from the 9th century onward, increasingly saw in them chiselled prohibitions against producing and using whatever representation of living beings. In that location are variations between religious madhhab (schools) and marked differences between different branches of Islam. Aniconism is common amid fundamentalist Sunni sects such as Salafis and Wahhabis (which are too oft iconoclastic), and less prevalent among liberal movements within Islam. Shia and mystical orders besides have less stringent views on aniconism. On the individual level, whether or not specific Muslims believe in aniconism may depend on how much credence is given to hadith, and how liberal or strict they are in personal do.

Aniconism in Islam not simply deals with the material image, but touches upon mental representations also. Information technology is a problematic issue, discussed by early theologians, every bit to how to describe God, Muhammad and other prophets, and, indeed, if it is permissible at all to practice and so. God is usually represented by immaterial attributes, such equally "holy" or "merciful", commonly known from His "90-nine cute names". Muhammad's physical appearance, however, is amply described, especially in the traditions on his life and deeds recorded in the biographies known as Sirah Rasul Allah. Of no less involvement is the validity of sightings of holy personages made during dreams.

Titus Burckhardt sums upward the function of aniconism in Islamic aesthetics every bit follows:

The absenteeism of icons in Islam has not only a negative just a positive role. By excluding all anthropomorphic images, at least within the religious realm, Islamic fine art aids man to be entirely himself. Instead of projecting his soul outside himself, he can remain in his ontological centre where he is both the viceregent (khalîfa) and slave ('abd) of God. Islamic art as a whole aims at creating an ambient which helps man to realize his primordial dignity; it therefore avoids everything that could be an 'idol', fifty-fifty in a relative and conditional manner. Naught must stand between homo and the invisible presence of God. Thus Islamic art creates a void; it eliminates in fact all the turmoil and passionate suggestions of the world, and in their stead creates an order that expresses equilibrium, serenity and peace.^[seven]

In do [edit]

Religious core [edit]

In practise, the cadre of normative religion in Islam is consistently aniconic. Spaces such as the mosque and objects like the Quran are devoid of figurative images. Other spheres of religion, for example mysticism, pop piety, or individual devotion exhibit meaning variability in this regard. Aniconism in secular contexts is fifty-fifty more variable and there are many examples of figural representation in secular art throughout history. Generally speaking, aniconism in Islamic societies is restricted in mod times to specific religious contexts. In the past, it was enforced only in some times and places.^[8]

By [edit]

The representation of living beings in Islamic art is not just a modernistic phenomenon and examples are establish from the earliest periods of Islamic history. Frescos and reliefs of humans and animals adorned palaces of the Umayyad era, every bit on the famous Mshatta Facade at present in Berlin.^{[9] [x]} The 'Abbasid Palaces at Samarra also contained figurative imagery. Ceramics, metalware, and objects in ivory, rock crystal, and other media also bore figural imagery in the medieval era.^[11] Figurative miniatures in books occur later in virtually Islamic countries but somewhat less in Arabic-speaking areas. The man figure is cardinal to the Persian miniature and other traditions such as the Ottoman miniature and Mughal painting.^{[12] [13]} The Persian miniature tradition began when Farsi courts were dominated past Sunnis, merely continued after the Shia Safavid dynasty took power. The Safavid ruler Shah Tahmasp I of Persia began his reign equally a keen patron and amateur artist himself, but turned against painting and other forbidden activities after a religious midlife crisis.^[14]

The Pisa Griffin, probably created in the 11th century in Al-Andalus, is the largest Islamic figurative sculpture to survive.

The avoidance of idolatry is the principal business concern of the restrictions on images, and as a upshot, the traditional form for the religious cult image, the gratuitous-standing sculpture, is extremely rare, though examples of freestanding homo sculpture do occur in Umayyad Syria and in Seljuk Iran.^[fifteen] The Pisa Griffin, of a mythical fauna and designed to spout water for a fountain, is the largest example, at 3 feet tall in bronze, and probably merely survives because information technology was taken as booty by the city of Pisa in the Eye Ages.^[xvi] Like the famous lions supporting a fountain in the Alhambra, it probably came from Al-Andalus. The griffin and lions cannot easily be regarded as potential idols, given their submissive position (and the lack of religions worshipping lions or griffins), and the same is true of pocket-sized decorative figures in relief on objects in metalwork, or figures painted on Islamic pottery, both of which are relatively common.^[17] In particular hunting scenes of humans and animals were popular, and presumably regarded equally clearly having no religious function. The figures in miniatures were, until the late 16th century, always numerous in each image, small (typically only an inch or two high), and showing the key figures at roughly the same size every bit the attendants and servants who are ordinarily also shown, thus deflecting potential accusations of idolatry. The books illustrated were most often the classics of Western farsi poetry and historical chronicles.

The hadith show some concessions for context, equally with the dolls, and condemn virtually strongly the makers rather than the owners of images.^[18] A long tradition of prefaces to muraqqas sought to justify the creation of images without getting involved in discussions of the specific texts, using arguments such every bit comparing God to an creative person.^[nineteen]

Miniature painting was generally patronized by the courtroom circumvolve and is a private course of fine art; the possessor chooses whom to show a book or muraqqa (album). Simply wall-paintings with big figures were establish in early Islam, and in Safavid and afterward Persia, specially from the 17th century, but were always rare in the Arabic-speaking earth. Such paintings are too mainly found in private palaces; examples in public buildings are rare though non unknown, in Iran in that location are fifty-fifty some in mosques.

Eschewing figural representation, ornamentation in Islamic sacred architecture relies importantly on arabesque and geometrical patterns.

Early on examples of non-figural representation in Islamic sacred architecture are found in the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus and the Dome of the Rock. The murals of the Dome of the Rock utilise crowns and jewels to symbolize earthly rulership and "otherworldly" plants as an invocation of the Quranic description of heaven.^[20] Similarly, the murals in the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus, which depict an idyllic cityscape are also meant to be an evocation of paradise without figural representation.^[xx]

The event of aniconism has posed problems in the modernistic world, especially as technologies like television developed in the 20th century. For many years, Wahhabi clerics opposed the establishment of a boob tube service in Saudi Arabia, as they believed it immoral to produce images of humans.^[21] The introduction of television in 1965 offended some Saudis, and one of Male monarch Faisal's nephews, Prince Khalid ibn Musa'id ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz,^[22] was killed in a police shootout in August 1965 later he led an assail on ane of the new goggle box stations.^[23]

Present [edit]

Depending on which segment of Islamic societies are referred to, the application of aniconism is characterized past noteworthy differences.^[24] Factors are the epoch considered, the country, the religious orientation, the political intent, the popular beliefs, the private benefit or the dichotomy between reality and discourse.

Today, the concept of an aniconic Islam coexists with a daily life for Muslims awash with images. TV stations and newspapers (which exercise present yet and moving representations of living beings) have an exceptional bear on on public stance, sometimes, equally in the case of Al Jazeera, with a global attain, across the Arabic speaking and Muslim audience. Portraits of secular and religious leaders are omnipresent on banknotes^{[25] [26]} and coins, in streets and offices (east.g. presidents like Nasser and Mubarak, Arafat, al-Assad or Hezbollah'southward Nasrallah and Ayatollah Khomeini). Anthropomorphic statues in public places are to be found in most Muslim countries (Saddam Hussein's are infamous^[27]), too as art schools training sculptors and painters. In the Egyptian countryside, it is fashionable to celebrate and advertise the returning of pilgrims from Mecca on the walls of their houses.

The Taliban move in Transitional islamic state of afghanistan banned photography and destroyed non-Muslim artifacts, especially carvings and statues such as the Buddhas of Bamiyan, more often than not tolerated past other Muslims, on the grounds that the artifacts are idolatrous or shirk. Still, sometimes those who profess aniconism will practice figurative representation (cf. portraits of Talibans from the Kandahar photographic studios during their imposed ban on photography^[28]).

For Shia communities, portraits of the major figures of Shiite history are important elements of religious devotion. In Iran, portraits of Muhammad and of Ali, printed on pieces of material or woven into carpets, are called temsal ("likenesses") and can be bought around shrines and in the streets, to be hung in homes or carried with oneself.^[29] In Pakistan, Bharat and Bangladesh portraits of Ali tin exist found on notoriously ornate trucks,^[30] buses and rickshaws.^[31] Contrary to the Sunni tradition, a photographic picture of the deceased can be placed on the Shiite tombs.^{[32] [33]} A curiosity in Islamic republic of iran is an Orientalist photography supposed to stand for Muhammad every bit a young boy.^[34] The Grand Ayatollah Sistani of Najaf in Republic of iraq has given a fatwā declaring the depiction of Muhammad, the prophets and other holy characters, permissible if it is made with the utmost respect.^[35]

Circumvention methods [edit]

Medieval Muslim artists found various ways to represent especially sensitive figures such every bit Muhammad. He is sometimes shown with a fiery halo hiding his face, head, or whole body, and from about 1500 is often shown with a veiled face.^[36] Members of his immediate family and other prophets may be treated in the same way. At the material level, prophets in manuscripts tin have their face covered past a veil or all humans have a stroke fatigued over their neck, symbolizing the severing of the soul, and clarifying the fact that information technology is not something alive and imbued with a soul that is depicted: a purposeful flaw to brand what is depicted impossible to live in reality (as merely incommunicable in reality is withal frequently frowned upon or banned, such as representations of comic volume characters or unicorns, although exceptions practice be). Few portraits were attempted, and the ability to create recognizable portraits was rare in Islamic art until the Mughal tradition began in the late 15th century, although in both Mughal Republic of india and Ottoman Turkey portraits of the ruler then became very pop in court circles.^[37]

Islamic calligraphy has besides displayed figurative themes. Examples of this are  anthropomorphic and zoomorphic calligrams.^[38] Islamic calligraphy forms evolved, especially in the Ottoman period, to fulfill a part similar to figurative art.^[39] When on newspaper, Islamic calligraphy is frequently seen with elaborate frames of Ottoman illumination.^[39] Examples of Islamic calligraphy using this technique include the name of Muhammad, the Hilya (a tablet that embodies the description of Muhammad's concrete appearance), multiple names of God in Islam, and the tughra (a calligraphic version of the name of an Ottoman sultan).^{[40] [41]}

Causes [edit]

Hadith and exegesis examples [edit]

During its early days, aniconism in Islam was intended as a measure confronting idolatry, peculiarly against the statues worshipped by pagans. All hadith presented in this section are Sunni, non Shia.

Narrated Aisha:
The wife of the Prophet purchased a cushion with pictures of animals on it for the Prophet to sit down on and recline on. The Prophet disapproved of the making of such pictures, saying the makers would be punished on the Twenty-four hour period of Resurrection when God would ask them to bring their creations to life. The Hadith also reports that the Prophet said that the angels would not enter a firm where there are pictures.

Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin:
Upon the Prophet'southward arrival from a military trek, a curtain covering Aisha'south store-room was raised by the blowing wind, uncovering her dolls. Among them, the Prophet saw a horse with ii wings made of rags and asked his wife what was on the horse. Aisha responded that information technology was two wings. He asked: A horse with two wings? Aisha then asked if the Prophet had not heard that Solomon had horses with wings. The Hadith reports that the Prophet laughed heartily where his tooth teeth were seen.

—Abu Dawood, Sunan Abu Dawood ^[43],
Reference (English Book) Volume 42, Hadith 4914
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 43, Hadith 160

Narrated Ali ibn Abu Talib:
Safinah AbuAbdurRahman, Ali ibn Abu Talib, and Fatimah invited the Prophet to eat with them. Upon the Prophet's arrival, he turned away afterward seeing figural defunction hanging at the stop of the business firm. Ali followed the Prophet to enquire what had turned him dorsum. The Prophet stated that information technology is unfitting for him or whatsoever Prophet to enter a habitation decorated [with figural imagery].

—Abu Dawood, Sunan Abu Dawood ^[44],
Reference (English Volume) Book 27, Hadith 3746
Reference (Arabic Volume) Book 28, Hadith twenty

Narrated 'Aisha:
Upon the arrival of the Prophet from a journey, he saw and tore a curtain with pictures his wife had placed over the door of a chamber. The Prophet disapproved of the making of such pictures, saying those who endeavor to make the like of Allah's creations will receive the severest punishment on the Day of Resurrection.

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari ^[45],
Reference (English Book) Vol. 7, Book 72, Hadith 838
Reference (Arabic Book) Volume 77, Hadith 6019

To show the superiority of the monotheist faith, Muhammad smashed the idols at the Kaaba. He as well removed paintings that were blasphemous to Islam, while protecting others (the images of Mary and Jesus) inside the edifice.^[46] The hadith below emphasizes that aniconism depends not simply on what, but also on how things are depicted.

Narrated Ibn Abbas:
The Prophet refused to enter the Ka'ba with idols in it and ordered they be removed. Pictures of Abraham and Ishmael holding arrows of divination were carried out and the Prophet stated, "May Allah ruin the infidels for the false portrayal of the acts of Abraham and Ishmael. The Hadith reports that the Prophet said "Allahu Akbar" inside all directions of the Ka'ba and left without prayer therein.

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari ^[47],
Reference (English Book) Vol. v, Volume 59, Hadith 584
Reference (Arabic Volume) Book 64, Hadith 4333

Muslim b. Subaih reported beingness in a house with Masriuq which had portrayals of Mary. Masriuq had heard Abdullah b, Mas'ud stating that the Prophet had said the most grievously tormented people on the Solar day of Resurrection would be the painters of pictures. After this message was read before Nasr b. 'Ali al-Jahdhami and other narrators, the terminal one existence Ibn Sa'id b Abl at Hasan, one person asked for a religious verdict for ane like himself who paints pictures. Ibn 'Abbas narrated to the person the Prophet'southward sayings in which all painters who make pictures would be punished in the fire of Hell and the soul will be breathed in every moving-picture show prepared by him. Only pictures of paintings of trees and lifeless things should be allowed.

Although pagans in Muhammad's times also worshiped copse and stones, Muhammad opposed simply images of animated beings — humans and animals —, every bit reported by the hadith. Later, geometrical ornamentation became a sophisticated art form in Islam.

Narrated Said bin Abu Al-Hasan:
Said bin Abu Al-Hasan narrates a conversation between a panicked man who makes his living by making pictures with Ibn 'Abbas. Ibn 'Abbas relays the message heard from the Prophet that whoever makes a flick volition exist incessantly punished past Allah until he is able to put life into it - though he declared that would never be possible. The Hadith reports Ibn 'Abbas further advised the panicked human being to brand pictures of trees and whatever other inanimate objects.

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari ^[49],
Reference (English Book) Vol. three, Volume 34, Hadith 428
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 34, Hadith 172

A'isha reported: The Prophet's wife describes owning a mantle with bird portraits. The Prophet asked for the mantle to be changed, for when he entered the room it brought to him pleasures of worldly life. Aisha describes as well having worn sheets with silk badges, which the Prophet did not control to be torn.

—Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim ^[fifty],
Reference (English Book) Book 24, Hadith 5255
Reference (Arabic Volume) Volume 38, Hadith 5643

Aisha describes the Prophet tearing a curtain with portraits on it as presently as he saw it. The Hadith reports that the Prophet said the most grievous torment from the Hand of Allah on the Day of Resurrection would be for those who imitate (Allah) in the act of His creation. The torn pieces were made into cushions.

—Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim ^[51],
Reference (English language Volume) Volume 24, Hadith 5261
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 38, Hadith 5650

Muhammad also warned his followers of dying amongst people that built places of worship at graves and placed pictures in it (i.eastward. Christians).

Narrated 'Aisha:
When the Prophet became ill, amongst his wives there was talk of a church in Ethiopia with descriptions of its beauty and pictures information technology contained. The Hadith reports the Prophet saying the creators are the worst creatures in the sight of Allah for they are the people who, upon the decease of a pious man amongst them, make a identify of worship at his grave and create pictures in it.

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari ^[52],
Reference (English Book) Vol. ii, Book 23, Hadith 425
Reference (Arabic Book) Volume 23, Hadith 425

Muhammad fabricated it very clear that angels practice not similar pictures.

Narrated Abu Talha:
The Prophet said that the angels do not enter houses where there are pictures. The sub-narrator Busr describes having visited Zaid who became ill, then witnessing a drape hung at his door with a picture on it that he had spoken virtually two days prior to becoming ill.

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari ^[53],
Reference (English Volume) Vol. 7, Book 72, Hadith 841
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 77, Hadith 6023

Narrated Salim's father:
Upon Gabriel's delay to visit the Prophet, he stated that they practise non enter a place in which at that place is a moving picture or a domestic dog

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari ^[54],
Reference (English Volume) Vol. vii, Volume 72, Hadith 843
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 77, Hadith 6026

Come across as well [edit]

• Aniconism in Christianity
• Aniconism in Judaism
• Taghut
• Censorship by religion
• Censorship in Islamic societies
• Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Kingdom of saudi arabia
• Devastation of cultural heritage by ISIL
• Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy
• Yazid II, an Umayyad caliph who issued an iconoclastic edict in 721 CE
• Criticism of Twelver Shia Islam#Paradigm veneration

Notes [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b} Esposito, John L. (2011). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam (2nd ed.). Oxford Academy Press. pp. fourteen–15.
2. ^ ^{a b} "Figural Representation in Islamic Fine art". The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
3. ^ Wolfram Drews (2011). "Jewish or Islamic Influence? The Iconoclastic Controversy Dispute". Cultural Transfers in Dispute. Representations in Asia, Europe and the Arab Globe since the Middle Ages. Germany: Campus Verlag. p. 42.
4. ^ Wolfram Drews (2011). "Jewish or Islamic Influence? The Iconoclastic Controversy Dispute". Cultural Transfers in Dispute. Representations in Asia, Europe and the Arab Globe since the Heart Ages. Frg: Campus Verlag. pp. 55–60.
5. ^ Esposito, John 50. (2011). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Oxford University Press. pp. 14–15. ISBN9780199794133.
6. ^ Quran 5:87–92, 21:51–52
7. ^ Titus Burckhardt (1 Oct 1987). Mirror of the intellect: essays on traditional science & sacred art. SUNY Press. p. 223. ISBN978-0-88706-684-9 . Retrieved 12 December 2011.
8. ^ Gruber, Christiane J., 1976-. The Praiseworthy Ane : the Prophet Muhammad in Islamic texts and images. Bloomington, Indiana, USA. ISBN 978-0-253-02526-5. OCLC 1083783078.
9. ^ Allen, Terry, "Aniconism and Figural Representation in Islamic Art", Palm Tree BooksArchived March three, 2016, at the Wayback Automobile
10. ^ Educational Site: Archaeological Sites: Qusayr `Amra Archived 2016-08-26 at the Wayback Machine
11. ^ Hoffman, Eva R. (2008-03-22). "Between East and Due west: The Wall Paintings of Samarra and the Structure of Abbasid Princely Culture". Muqarnas Online. 25 (i): 107–132. doi:10.1163/22118993_02501005. ISSN 0732-2992.
12. ^ Reza Abbasi Museum Archived September 27, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
13. ^ "Portraits of the Sultans," Topkapi Palace Museum Archived November 20, 2008, at the Wayback Motorcar
14. ^ Dickson, Martin (1958). Sháh Tahmásb and the Úzbeks (the duel for Khurásán with ʻUbayd Khán; 930-946/1524-1540). Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton Academy. p. 190.
15. ^ Canby, Sheila R, Deniz Beyazit, Martina Rugiadi, A. C. S Peacock, and N.Y.) Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York. Courtroom and Cosmos: The Great Age of the Seljuqs, 2016, p. twoscore-47
16. ^ Mack, p. 3 Archived June 10, 2016, at the Wayback Auto
17. ^ Canby, Sheila R, Deniz Beyazit, Martina Rugiadi, A. C. Due south Peacock, and Due north.Y.) Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York. Court and Cosmos: The Peachy Historic period of the Seljuqs, 2016, p. 121
18. ^ The image debate : figural representation in Islam and across the world. Gruber, Christiane J., 1976-. London. ISBN 978-i-909942-34-ix. OCLC 1061820255.
19. ^ Roxburgh, David J. Prefacing the Image: The Writing of Fine art History in Sixteenth-Century Iran. Studies and Sources in Islamic Art and Architecture, v. ix. Leiden ; Brill, 2001.
20. ^ ^{a b} George, Alain. Paradise or Empire?: On a Paradox of Umayyad Art. Power, Patronage, and Memory in Early Islam (2018). Oxford University Press.
21. ^ Boyd, Douglas A. (Winter 1970–71). "Saudi Arabian Tv set". Journal of Dissemination. xv (1).
22. ^ R. Hrair Dekmejian (1995). Islam in Revolution: Fundamentalism in the Arab Globe. Syracuse University Press. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-8156-2635-0. Retrieved 2013-02-13.
23. ^ "Saudi Time Flop?". Frontline PBS.
24. ^ See 'Sura' and 'Taswir' in Encyclopaedia of Islam
25. ^ Petroleum-related banknotes: Kingdom of saudi arabia: Oil Refinery Archived July 20, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
26. ^ Petroleum-related banknotes: Iran: Abadan Refinery, Iahanshahi-Amouzegar Archived July twenty, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
27. ^ David Zucchino "U.S. military, not Iraqis, behind toppling of statue" Honolulu Advertiser, July 5, 2004 Archived March 3, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
28. ^ Jon Lee Anderson, Thomas Dworzak, Taliban, London (UK), Trolley, 2003, ISBN 0-9542648-v-1.
29. ^ Dabashi, Hamid (2011). Shi'ism - A Religion of Protestation. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Printing of Harvard University Printing. pp. 29–30.
30. ^ Saudi Aramco World : Masterpieces to Get: The Trucks of Pakistan Archived October eight, 2014, at the Wayback Automobile
31. ^ The Rickshaw Arts of Bangladesh Archived Oct 21, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
32. ^ Picture of Golestan e Shohoda cemetery Esfahan -Esfahan, Islamic republic of iran Archived October eighteen, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
33. ^ Mashad Martyrs Cemetery at All-time Iran Travel.com Archived Apr 7, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
34. ^ Photography by Lehnert & Landrock, titled "Mohamed", Tunis, c. 1906. Nicole Canet, Lehnert & Landrock. Photographies orientatlistes 1905-1930. (Paris: Galerie Au Bonheur du Jour, 2004): embrace, p. 9. expressionless link Archived May eighteen, 2006, at the Wayback Machine . Historical context described in (in French) Patricia Briel, letemps.ch, 22 February 2006. Ces étranges portraits de Mahomet jeune ^{[ dead link ]}
35. ^ Grand Ayatollah Uzma Sistani, Fiqh & Beliefs: Istifa answers, personal website. (accessed 17 February 2006) (in Standard arabic) ^{[ permanent expressionless link ]} , "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2009-05-23. Retrieved 2009-04-29 . {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
36. ^ Gruber, Christiane. "BETWEEN LOGOS ( KALIMA ) AND LIGHT ( NŪR ): REPRESENTATIONS OF THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD IN ISLAMIC PAINTING." Muqarnas, vol. 26, 2009, pp. 229–262. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/27811142. Accessed 12 Nov. 2020.
37. ^ Fetvacı, Emine. Picturing History at the Ottoman Court / Emine Fetvacı. Indiana University Press, 2014. p.254
38. ^ Robinson, Francis. Journal of Islamic Studies, vol. 3, no. 1, 1992, pp. 100–103. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/26196535. Accessed 13 Nov. 2020.
39. ^ ^{a b} FETVACI, EMINE. "THE Album OF AHMED I." Ars Orientalis, vol. 42, 2012, pp. 127–138. JSTOR, world wide web.jstor.org/stable/43489770. Accessed 13 November. 2020
40. ^ The Metropolitan Museum of Art. "Hilya (Votive Tablet)." Accessed December ix, 2020. https://www.metmuseum.org/fine art/collection/search/447313.
41. ^ Grabar, Oleg. "An Exhibition of High Ottoman Fine art." Muqarnas, vol. 6, 1989, pp. 1–11. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1602275. Accessed 13 Nov. 2020.
42. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, three:34:318, 7:62:110
43. ^ Sunan Abu Dawood, 41:4914
44. ^ Sunan Abu Dawood, 27:3746
45. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:72:838
46. ^ Guillaume, Alfred (1955). The Life of Muhammad. A translation of Ishaq'southward "Sirat Rasul Allah". Oxford University Press. p. 552. ISBN978-0-19-636033-1 . Retrieved 2011-12-08 .
47. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, v:59:584
48. ^ Sahih Muslim, 24:5272
49. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, three:34:428
50. ^ Sahih Muslim, 24:5255
51. ^ Sahih Muslim, 24:5261
52. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 2:23:425
53. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, vii:72:841
54. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, seven:72:843

References [edit]

General [edit]

• Jack Goody, Representations and Contradictions: Ambiguity Towards Images, Theatre, Fiction, Relics and Sexuality, London, Blackwell Publishers, 1997. ISBN 0-631-20526-8.

Islam [edit]

• Oleg Grabar, "Postscriptum", The Formation of Islamic Art, Yale University, 1987 (p209). ISBN 0-300-03969-7
• Terry Allen, "Aniconism and Figural Representation in Islamic Fine art", Five Essays on Islamic Art, Occidental (CA), Solipsist, 1988. ISBN 0-944940-00-5 [1]
• Gilbert Beaugé & Jean-François Clément, L'image dans le monde arabe [The image in the Arab globe], Paris, CNRS Éditions, 1995, ISBN 2-271-05305-6 (in French)
• Rudi Paret, Das islamische Bilderverbot und die Schia [The Islamic prohibition of images and the Shi'a], Erwin Gräf (ed.), Festschrift Werner Caskel, Leiden, 1968, 224-32. (in High german)

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aniconism_in_Islam

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